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For instance, smokers may consume cigarettes more intensively through increasing the number of puffs, length of inhalation, or by blocking the ventilation holes on the filter while consuming the same number of cigarettes [52].
For instance, smokers may be more likely to induce metallothionein because they are repeatedly exposed to cadmium from cigarette smoke.
For instance, smokers are sometimes reluctant to stop smoking because they will gain weight, which is also a risk factor for premature death.
The prevalence of lung cancer is certainly high and can be increased by selecting a high risk population to screen, for instance smokers over the age of 60 years.
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For instance, current smokers were defined as participants who admitted to smoking more than three times per week for at least six months.
Smoking during pregnancy has been positively associated with poor attention for health, for instance women smokers more frequently do not take folic supplementation [ 45] and have low adherence to psychotropic medications [ 46].
Smoking kills around 430,000 Americans a year, but in many cases the link with death is hard to prove: for instance, a smoker who dies of heart disease may also be an overeater (or drinker).In the Engle suit, the courts have so far tolerated the idea that Floridian smokers may be sufficiently similar to allow the case to be heard, but the trial still promises to be long and complex.
For instance, among never-smokers, when comparing women in the fifth quintile of fruit and vegetable intake with women in the first quintile, the RR was 1.04 (95% CI: 0.85 1.28).
Participants can also set parameters for fellow riders (will not ride with smokers, for instance).
It's not exactly a new idea: Life insurance companies have long charged nonsmokers less than smokers, for instance, and now may offer discounted premiums and other financial inducements to members who eat more healthfully and meet other health goals.
It might, for instance, be argued that smokers should be eliminated from the reference population as smoking is relatively common and increases the risk of preterm delivery.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com