They also examined causality between both indices and find bidirectional causality.
For countries like Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands, Romania, Spain, and Sweden, there is a unidirectional causality from innovation to per capita economic growth (PAN => GDP), whereas for Finland, Germany, Greece, and Norway, we find unidirectional causality from per capita economic growth to innovation (GDP => PAN).
Through his empirical analysis Prof. Snyder failed to find any causality that Qualcomm's behavior had any impact on competitors and the market.
Additionally, for countries like Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, Portugal, and the UK, and the European panel, we find bidirectional causality between innovation and per capita economic growth (PAN <=> GDP), while in the context of Italy, and Poland, we find per capita economic growth does not Granger-cause innovation (GDP <#> PAN).
Mishra et al. (2010), engaging in a macro-econometric analysis aimed at ruling out endogeneity in order to unravel causation, find that causality runs from changes in fertility (TFR) to changes in LFP.
Applying the Bradford Hill criteria (34) to determine causality, we find that some are fulfilled whereas others are not.
The results of the panel vector error correction model finds bidirectional causality between nuclear energy consumption and economic growth in the short-run while unidirectional causality from nuclear energy consumption to economic growth in the long-run.
Third, the results of the Granger causality test find evidence of unidirectional causality running from real income to nuclear energy consumption in Japan.
Furthermore, the panel causality results find evidence of unidirectional causality running from oil prices and economic growth to nuclear energy consumption in the long run, while there is no causality between nuclear energy consumption and economic growth in the short run.
