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The significant SD detected in the BC1F1 populations only when the F1 was used as a female parent is indicative of SD due to the female effect since there was no segregation in male parent.
η represents the effect of male raters, β is the differential effect between the score of female raters and male raters (female effect is η +β), and δ represents a shift in the constant in female raters' scores at the mean value of trait.
Female effect was significant for body mass (ANOVA, p < 0.001), but not for total length.
Average embryo survival was 77.9% (± 11.3 s.d).. Offspring of different females differed in their survival as the female effect explained a significant part of the variance in offspring mortality (the model without female effect (male model) differed significantly in its goodness of fit from the reference model; Table 1).
In both male and female subjects, the C allele correlated with higher levels of TG (in male, effect = 0.061 mg/dL, P = 1.963E-08; in female, effect = 0.053 mg/dL, P = 3.772E-12) and with lower HDL-C levels (in male, effect = −2.102 mg/dL, P = 3.810E-05; in female, effect = −1.444 mg/dL, P = 0.001) in the total population.
To further explore the specificity of the adult female effect, we examined whether the preserved behavioral response to ethanol odor is due to the combination of prenatal and adolescent ethanol exposures or the effect of the most proximal (adolescent) experience.
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Conclusions The two genes identified to date that cause hereditary lymphedema have equal male and female effects, but each displays a different pattern of onset age and penetrance.
Maternal effects are a non-genetic contribution of a female to its offspring but most reported maternal effects are products of both genetic and non-genetic contributions, i.e. female effects.
We also tested for female effects on offspring survival.
Our experimental setup allowed us to control for these female effects.
In order to estimate the genetic correlation of male and female effects on fertility, a covariance between male and female genetic effects was also fitted in some models.
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