Simulations performed for both groups led to four management principles: road traffic is not reduced significantly without disincentives for car use; overly cheap lift fares are counterproductive; fare-frequency trade-off is key to ensure adequate bus ridership within both groups; and road closures may be comprehensively more effective than road tolls.
In the public regulatory model, the road toll location and charge level are simultaneously optimized together with the bus service fare and frequency.
In the private regulatory model, the fare and frequency of bus services, which are operated by a profit-driven private operator, are optimized for exogenously given toll pricing schemes.
To be revealing, however, a measure of accessibility must not only consider the distance or travel time of a single mode, but should include the fares, the frequency and the interchanges of all available modes.
An objective function representing the total welfare of a transport strategy is used to measure the performance of the strategy; the levels of policy instruments in a strategy, such as changes in public transport fares and frequency, are chosen such that the objective function is optimised.
That is one reason Cathay said it focused on service and staff, rather than fares, flight frequencies and destinations, in its campaign.
The results show that emission charges will raise fares, reduce flight frequency, increase load factors, and raise aircraft fuel efficiency, while having no effect on aircraft size.
That means TfL can specify every detail of a particular route length, frequency, fares and even the colour of the buses.
One of the biggest barriers to attracting new riders to Metropolitan Transportation Authority trains is not the price of fares or the frequency of service.
Optimisation variables are bus fare, congestion toll, bus frequency, bus size, fare collection system, bus boarding policy and the number of seats inside buses.
