We quantified male annual reproductive success (ARS) for territorial (which includes within-pair and extra-pair reproduction) and floating (extra-pair reproduction only) males by estimating the numbers of offspring sired and fledged each year.
In hihi, the variance in extra-pair reproduction for territorial males has the largest contribution to male reproductive success (60% of fertilizations; Walker et al. 2014).
(Shipping is extra; the reproductions are not available in the United States).
However, unlike most studies, we have also shown older males (over 5 years) tend to also become floaters and there is likely to be senescence in floater extra-pair reproduction.
However, when a large proportion of unpaired/floater males are sampled, they are found to gain a reasonable proportion of extra-pair paternity reproduction (Kleven et al. 2006; Sardell et al. 2010).
The level below which the situation is considered to become critical (e.g., requires extra management action, critical for reproduction of marine organisms etc).. Thresholds corresponding to "bad" conditions were defined: The most negative situation observed during the available time-series, after which conditions have improved.
For example, one of the best-known energy tradeoff models by Shanley and Kirkwood (S-K model; [ 11]) assumes that CR suppresses the effort of reproduction and channels extra energy to maintenance of soma.
Procreation of the extra progeny is a corollary of the combinatorial character of sexual reproduction, which implies random formation of various genomes including inevitably those of low vitality.
Experimental testing of these cassettes will reveal what role, if any, these extra loci have, in organisms where sexual reproduction has not been characterized yet.
If so, what kinds of organizational and extra-organizational resources are mobilized in this reproduction?
