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It's an expression of learning how to live with another person and to become loving and tolerant.
We introduce here a condensed version of the Morris water maze, which is like a traditional water maze paradigm, in that it is hippocampus-dependent, and elicits hippocampal expression of learning genes.
These previous studies focused on learning, while here we also probed the effect of dopaminergic status (ON medication, and OFF medication) on test 'performance', i.e. on the expression of learning during behavioural extinction.
For example, when Parkinson's disease patients are OFF dopamine replacement therapy, it is reported that their expression of learning from positive feedback is impaired (Frank et al., 2004, 2007 b ), while when ON dopamine replacement therapy they show impaired performance in learning from negative outcomes (Frank et al., 2004; Bodi et al., 2009).
Genetic dopamine-deficient mice when tested in a maze task appears initially impaired but when subsequently treated with l-DOPA (Robinson et al., 2005), or caffeine (Hnasko et al., 2005) can be shown to have learned, consistent with an effect of dopamine on the expression of learning rather than on learning itself.
Hippocampus is the main brain structure involved in learning and memory, and thought to primarily contribute to the acquisition, consolidation and expression of learning of the drug related cues that drives relapse to drug-seeking behaviors [13], [31].
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They are in effect an expression of the learning effects: learning just happens to take place through a network.
However, the expression of these learning effects was highly consistent across subjects.
This finding is surprising, given that the dorsal ACC is the putative cognitive region and that the two groups did not differ on the more cognitive expression of fear learning.
A two-by-two design was used to understand students' expression of knowledge and of learning in the contexts of "regular" online discussions versus "final test" online discussions.
Other studies suggest that it may be an expression of bipolar disorder, of learning disabilities, of frustration and anger by misunderstood children, of family conflict, or of identity crisis.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.
Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com