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At one end, there is document imaging, which captures the arrangement of black marks on paper, while at the other end there are proof assistants (e.g., Mizar, Isabelle, Coq, etc.), which capture the full mathematical meaning and have proofs expressed in a formal foundation of mathematics.
The term reasoning system or, synonymously, an inference system or a reasoner denotes a computer program intended for processing knowledge, which is expressed in a formal calculus, e.g. the first order logic (FOL).
Russell introduced another hierarchy, that was not motivated by any formal paradoxes expressed in a formal system, but rather by the fear of "circularity" and by informal paradoxes similar to the paradox of the liar.
Depending on the purpose and type of trust, the contract may not have to be written and doesn't have to be expressed in a formal document: your grandmother might have created a trust by simply writing "In Trust For" on a bank account or other asset.
Initially, this structure was not expressed in a formal logic-based language.
It must be populated by domain knowledge expressed in a formal semantics—a computing syntax such as a markup language that allows all entities declared into the ontology to be precisely defined and their interrelationships given strict parameters with the goal of enabling realistic biological models.
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which can be expressed in a more formal way as [25, 33]: begin{array}{*{20}l} eta_{E} = frac{L(1 - text{PER}left overline{gamma}right)) }{overline{mathrm{E}}_{text{total}}} ~~~~ textrm{bits/J} end{array} (2).
These terms can be expressed in a more formal way using equivalence relations (see, for example, [ 33]).
This view has recently been expressed in a few formal models on instruction-based control of learning and behavior (Doll et al., 2009; Huang, Hazy, Herd, & O'Reilly, 2013; Ramamoorthy & Verguts, 2012).
In this way, biological processes that participate in a given biological network can be expressed in a more formal way compared to the classical textual description found in the current databases (Swissprot, Pfam, etc).. Unfortunately, knowledge on the parameters of biological processes is not always complete or available.
Modeling consists in abstracting functionalities' behaviours in terms of actions, expressed in a semi-formal structured language, later automatically translated in a pure formal notation.
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