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Novices employing expert item categorization groupings performed significantly better on evolution problem solving tasks (Fig. 1).
Following focus groups and expert item review, a measure of foster parenting attitudes was administered to 90 foster mothers in two urban settings.
These questions (see Proxy Cognitive Interview Questions section) were based on prior published work [ 23] and developed by the expert item development team.
It may then be helpful to identify underlying reasons for the differential functioning using expert item review (see the section on qualitative methods below).
These items represented all content areas within the domains and were chosen by the expert item development team based on which items thought most likely to exhibit issues with proxy reporting.
The expert item development team then reviewed all of the summary statements from each respondent for each item to determine issues with item comprehension, instructions, relevance and other general issues.
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The validated 15 item version of the CAHPS (6-items provider communication) is built upon a rigorous development process, including an environmental scan to identify item domains, consultation with experts, item drafting, cognitive testing and psychometric analysis [ 20].
As review committees seem to be more effective in detecting NF-Ds compared to single experts, item authors are still advised to write as many distractors as is feasible.
The experts scored each item on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not very clear/important/frequent) to 5 (very clear/important/frequent). Based on the scores assigned by the experts, items with a mean score of over 2.75 (25th percentile) were judged to be very clear; a score of over 2 was considered to be very important and very frequent (50th percentile in both cases).
Main Outcome Measures: Content validity was examined through expert panel item sorts.
Based on the decisions of our expert panel, item modifications were made.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com