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Compared to species restricted to refugia, such species may have experienced recurrent shifts in their distribution, with populations mixing or separating from each other with the cyclical shrinking or expanding of forests.
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This crop genetic heritage was lost after 1492 through a 90 95 % decline of Amazonian Amerindian populations (Denevan 1992), which also resulted in expanding "fallow" forests that with time resembled untouched tropical forest (Heckenberger 2010).
Restoring and expanding global forests can also cool the planet.
Deserts are expanding and forests are contracting.
Notwithstanding significant increases in forests within protected areas since 1990 to 517 Mha (16.3%) globally and 379 Mha (26.6%) in the tropics, increasing demands for ecological services, forest products, and climate change mitigation is likely to be met from an expanding area of planted forests more than from the declining area of natural forests, particularly in Africa.
The practice has helped to eliminate slash-and-burn agriculture, expanded the forests of Africa and increased food production for many African farmers by as much as 400percentt.
Changes of the climate to more humid condition with expanding forests probably led to the isolation of local baboon populations, because for most baboons dense forests constitute biogeographical barriers.
A halving of the visitor willingness-to-pay values, wood product and fuelwood values would similarly reduce the estimated economic benefits of expanding the current forest area.
However, they all shared a relatively late origin, which most likely occurred in periods of global warming and expanding wet tropical forests.
Most industrial countries have experienced a transformation of land use: from decreasing to expanding forest areas, the so-called forest transition.
Hence, it seems likely that warm climates and expanding tropical angiosperm forests played critical roles in the successful radiation of diverse fungus farming groups.
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