Analysis performed in this study controls for democracy by using the executive constraints (XCONST) variable in Polity 2 data [ 34].
Model 2 excludes war duration in days and cumulative deaths in conflict, but includes additional armed conflict-related variables (e.g. government victory, rebel victory) and controls for executive constraints, GDP per capita, and primary school enrollment.
21 In brief, the score was based on three criteria: (1) openness and competitiveness in the recruitment of the chief executive; (2) constraints on the authority of the chief executive; and (3) political participation and opposition.
Some executives enjoy a "halo of reputation", the academics suggest, that causes directors to shower them with vast rewards when an equally capable but less famous alternative might have been willing to do the job at a small fraction of the price.One thing holding back such executives was "outrage constraint", a fear that massive pay packages might attract unwelcome attention in the media.
The usual methods around this constitutional constraint are executive agreements or a majority vote in the House and Senate to pass a treaty as a simple law (known as a Congressional-executive agreement).
They measure a developing country's "polity score", based on factors like transparency and constraints on executive power.
But it's also killed innocents, fed anti-American sentiment and eroded the constraints on executive power in troubling ways.
And second, Mr. Cheney and his ideologues, who had long chafed at any legal constraints on executive power, preyed on that panic to advance their agenda.
He too prefers exit over voice (meaning that he thinks that leaving and joining are better constraints on executive power than the ballot box).
He frequently used them to declare that provisions in the bills he was signing were unconstitutional constraints on executive power, and that the laws did not need to be enforced or obeyed as written.
