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The decision about including or excluding a paper in our analysis was based on consensus discussion.
Where there was continued disagreement between reviewers about including or excluding a paper, a third reviewer made the final decision.
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It was still possible at this step to exclude a paper if it was deemed irrelevant or methodologically flawed.
There are no examples of refutational syntheses of which we are aware, aside from Noblit and Hare's example [ 15], although in some meta-ethnographies [ 16] reviewersb have identified and excluded a paper(s) which could not be synthesised with the other papers or identified multiple lines of argument that were difficult to synthesise into a single line of argument [ 20].
As there are different types of spoiled ballots, a possible compromise would be to include those that were annulled simply because they had been put in the wrong box - for instance, in the parliamentary box rather the presidential box - while excluding a ballot paper on which a person had voted for two candidates, our reporter says.
They can include the fast publishing of negative results, publishing detailed methodical papers and excluding a strict connection between career progression and publication activity, especially for younger researchers.
"No individual or small group of scientists is in a position to exclude a peer-reviewed paper" from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Rajendra K. Pachauri, the chairman of that panel, wrote in a statement late last week.
It is interesting to note that we excluded a number of papers from this synthesis because they did not report substantial qualitative data related to breastfeeding [ 52, 53].
The second observer excluded an additional 22 papers without substantive criticism.
Based on full text review of 192 papers, we excluded a further 169 and included 23 trials in the analysis.
A manual selection process was implemented in which the following categories of papers were excluded: a) review articles; b) commentaries and brief communications; and c) editorial notes including correspondence to editors.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com