This result was most obvious for survival, where QST values at elevated temperatures did not exceed neutral expectations, and divergent selection was only visible at ambient temperature.
We parameterized simulations of genetic drift using estimates of N b derived from the study populations, and explicitly identified loci that exceeded neutral expectations (i.e., consistent with signatures of adaptive divergence) in each hatchery line.
In addition, the analyses of contact zones between closely related gull species (genus Larus) showed that interspecific divergence in plumage melanism and orbital ring color, clearly exceeded neutral genetic differentiation [ 45].
These 'genomic islands of speciation' are comprised of outlier loci having genetic differentiation that exceeds background neutral expectations and may harbor genes affecting reproductive isolation [ 1, 25, 57].
In contrast, after approximately 50 generations, the FST for QTLs exceeded the neutral marker divergence (i.e., their standard deviations did not overlap).
These mammalian taxa feature a minimal interspecific nucleotide divergence at the level of synonymous sites within genes of 7% (for sheep-cattle; [ 39]), which is most probably exceeded by neutral non-genic sites.
When the number of QTLs was set to 20 and the variance of allele effects was small (0.1), the simulated distribution also exceeded the neutral marker divergence, but the increase was linear (Sim_K).
FST in QTLs can only exceed the neutral marker divergence in the first 10 generations when the difference in optima is very large (i.e., 50-fold), the quantitative trait is coded by five loci, and the variance for allele effects is small (0.1).
The typical electron-ion collision frequency exceeds the electron neutral collision frequency at an altitude of ~ 160 km.
Consistent with the low values of these indices, within-clade disparity for each of the niche components exceeds expectations under neutral (Brownian) niche divergence.
