There are numerous examples of pathogens evading and exploiting host cell biology to promote their pathogenesis.
Listeria monocytogenes and E. coli K1 are examples of pathogens that use gp96 for transcytosis across barrier cell layers.
Indeed, there are now examples of pathogens triggering down-regulation of host genes (e.g. [48]); this is clearly an area that merits further investigation.
Also shown in Fig. 6 are examples of pathogen-linked circuits in the secretion system.
Classically, these included polio virus, Shigella, Salmonella, and other enteric bacteria, all examples of pathogens with a fecal oral route of infection.
Borrelia spp. and Anaplasma marginale (among bacteria) and African trypanosomes, Plasmodium falciparum, and Babesia bovis (among parasites) are examples of pathogens using these mechanisms.
Recent examples of pathogens emerging in new areas of the globe, driven by changes in wildlife host migration patterns, illustrate that environmental drivers of pathogen spread need to be included in the holistic development of disease mitigation interventions (Altizer et al. 2013 ; Goldstein et al. 2009 ).
Other examples of pathogens that may be prevented by vaccination and for which vaccines are not yet available are hepatitis C virus (HCV), dengue, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), group B Streptococcus (GBS), Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Fig 2).
Examples of pathogens for which effective vaccines are lacking include herpes simplex virus (HSV), human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV) among viruses; M. tuberculosis, H. pylori, and S. aureus among bacteria; and Leishmania, Trypanosoma, and Filaria species among parasites.
