Let H x), H y), and H x,y) be the entropies (non-negative, by construction, although pathological examples may arise in continuous distributions) of the marginal distributions of x, y, and x,y respectively, with and The discrepancy away from the association model is (29) Note that Where H y| x) is the entropy of the conditional distribution of y given x.
This suggests two possibilities: a) a covariance structure exists for individual measurements within a species, for example as may arise from population genetic structuring, or b) σ V and σ W were not constant across species, for example if some species contain a wider range of genetic variants or show higher phenotypic plasticity in the expression of a trait.
During the implementation phase, for example, issues may arise that require a new assessment and changes to the original design.
For example, difficulties may arise from visual explanations in which phenomena are represented with "deceptive clarity" (Tasker and Dalton, 2006; Harris et al., 2009; Linn et al., 2010).
For example, endotoxemia may arise from the most common chronic oral infection, periodontitis, which has an association with incident cardiovascular disease events and type 2 diabetes (18, 20).
This means, however, that negative experiences (for example, "moral stress") may arise from conflict with supervisory staff regarding beneficiary needs, organizational goals, and ambiguity of positive impact on beneficiaries (de Waal 2010; Nilsson et al. 2011).
For example, such feelings may arise when you perceive that your partner is withholding money, which you'd like to go toward purchasing a car, flowers, a night on the town, or something else.
For example, statistical heterogeneity may arise from clinical or methodological heterogeneity, from other unknown or unrecorded trial characteristics, or it may be due to chance.
There may be some barriers to the use of such nested trials – for example, ethical concerns may arise if culturally appropriate recruitment is to be randomised.
For example, genomic heterogeneity may arise through heritable genetic and epigenetic mechanisms and is exemplified by the presence of discrete clonal variants within a tumour (Navin et al, 2011), the potential presence of tumour initiating subpopulations of cells (Bonnet & Dick, 1997; Lapidot et al, 1994) or cells with a characteristic 'mutator' phenotype (see Kolodner et al, 2011).
