A broad summary is given as a mind map in Fig. 3, while the various general elements of a modern directed evolution program, on which we base our development of the main ideas, appears as Fig. 4.
The growth and development of a biological organism is reflected by its metabolic network, the evolution of which relies on the essential gene duplication mechanism.
Until this time, however, clientelistic practices had generally been considered part of a "traditional" stage of political and social evolution, of which peasant societies on the periphery of Europe were considered prime examples.
In this view, complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution; rather, it is a consequence of the specific circumstances of evolution on Earth, which frequently made greater complexity advantageous, and thus naturally selected for.
The obtained eT generated novel and unique 2D continuous evolution profiles (CEPs) and 3D continuous evolution landscapes (CELs) based on which the differentiation of complex mixtures such as red wine, beer and milk were successful.
The latter component can result in the reduction or elimination of an adaptive advantage enjoyed by large asexual populations if the fitness landscape on which evolution occurs is a rugged one that contains many local peaks [ 14].
Thirty-four yeago ago Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist at Oxford University, proposed the idea that "selfish genes", not individual organisms or entire species, are the units on which evolution acts.
When Galton stumbled upon Quetelet's work, however, he exultantly saw the bell curve in a new light: what it described was not accidents to be overlooked but differences that revealed the variability on which evolution depended.
On the contrary, my account of the historical failures of a "mathematical biology" shows that, in good part, these failures derive precisely from inappropriate expectations that mathematical physicists have brought to their study of biology -- especially from their expectations of general principles and their neglect of the concrete particularities on which evolution has so spectacularly depended.
Habitat templet theory predicts that habitat provides the templet on which evolution shapes species' multiple traits and thus their characteristic life-history strategies.
