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This cluster-level adaptation can result in the evolution of increased multicellular complexity (Willensdorfer 2009; Bonner 2003).
The Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability (EICA) hypothesis suggests that plants from the invasive range should perform better than plants of the same species from the native range.
Those crossbills, for which we have evidence of their either exerting selection on their key conifers, or evolution of increased crossbill defenses in their key conifers, are the crossbills having smaller than "optimal" bills (the Douglas-fir [call type 4], ponderosa pine [call type 2], and South Hills [call type 9] crossbills; Benkman et al. in press).
Therefore, the greater fitness impact of damage in the shade constitutes the selective scenario for the evolution of increased allocation into defense and ensuing plant resistance.
Sperm competition theory predicts that multiple mating by females should favour the evolution of increased male expenditure on the ejaculate as males compete to fertilize available ova [1].
However, marine larvae also allow colonization of islands, where absence of many predators allows greater levels of ecological experimentation, and thus may be conducive to the evolution of increased terrestriality.
Evolution of increased microsatellite and EST GC content was evident within the grasses.
Instead, the evolution of increased outcrossing rates appears to have resulted from unhindered selection on males.
We have previously shown that the experimental evolution of increased outcrossing rates in populations of the male-hermaphrodite nematode Caenorhabditis elegans were correlated with the experimental evolution of increased male fitness.
Blossey and Nötzold (1995) proposed a hypothesis to explain the evolution of increased size or fecundity evident in some introduced plant populations relative to natives (the 'evolution of increased competitive ability' or EICA hypothesis).
Evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) is another mechanism which could lead to evolution of rapid growth in invasive populations.
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