Examples of convergent evolution between host and parasite secreted/membrane proteins were identified as were homologues of vaccine antigens from other helminths.
In particular, we are interested in differences in positive selection pressure on the virus between the 1980s and the 2000s, and between within-host evolution and between-host evolution.
The test result was significant with p<1% in all four analyses, indicating that positive selection most likely operated during both within-host evolution and between-host evolution and both in the 1980s and in the 2000s.
Presumably, this is because such genes are involved in co-evolution between hosts and pathogens.
Furthermore, co-evolution between hosts and pathogens has been proposed for primates and certain viruses and parasites [99], [100]; such reciprocal changes within a specific disease environment may have also influenced geographically dependent fixed differences in the primate TNF promoter.
During the co-evolution between hosts and microorganisms, plants evolved a repertoire of R genes to defend themselves against pathogens by mounting effective, fine-tuned immune responses [ 8].
Herein, we review recent theoretical and experimental work that generated new insights into the complex link between within-host evolution and between-host fitness, revealing temporal and selective processes underlying the structure and dynamics of HIV-1 transmission.
These processes can contribute to the substantially faster rates of within-host evolution relative to between-host evolution (Lemey et al., 2006; Pybus and Rambaut, 2009).
Such antagonistic traits may reveal possible co-evolution between host finding and host tolerance in necromenic associations.
This is most likely the effect of co-evolution between host and parasite, in which the host influences phage nucleotide usage patterns and possibly vice versa [ 25].
All these differences between antimicrobial effectors could be related to specific antimicrobial functions and result from co-evolution between host and pathogen species.
