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Of these 81 measures, 48 evaluated stigma against the mental illness/ the mentally ill in general; 11 were self-stigma measures; 6 evaluated personally experienced stigma; and 12 evaluated stigma against mental health treatment (psychological and pharmacological), psychiatry, help-seeking, or mental health care facilities.
Our analysis suggests that, out of three outcomes of mental health literacy (knowledge, attitudes and help-seeking), most measures evaluated stigma (n = 111), followed by measures that evaluated knowledge (n = 69), and a smaller number of help-seeking (n = 33).
Further, some measures evaluated stigma against specific mental illnesses, such as depression, anxiety, ADHD, and schizophrenia/psychosis. Eleven studies (7 measures) did not report what aspects of stigma were measured (Fig. 6).
For example, some measures evaluated stigma towards help seeking (e.g., help-seeking as personal weakness; people seeking help being less likeable, disturbed, posed risks to others, and should hide the fact of seeking help) [ 101, 137].
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Our objective was to develop an instrument to evaluate stigma in people with schizophrenia and other psychoses that would have validity across cultures.
The instruments used to evaluate stigma, QoL, behavioral problems, and depression showed moderate to good levels of internal consistency using Cronbach's α.
While the evaluated anti-stigma interventions themselves seem to be scientifically sound in terms of their theoretical background and content, the evaluation methods used need to be improved substantially.
The Mental Health Knowledge Schedule (MAKS) and RIBS were administered together with the Mental Illness: Clinicians' Attitudes Scale (MICA) to evaluate staff stigma from the perspective of knowledge, attitudes and behaviour.
The measure used to evaluate the stigma reduction impact of the programme is the Opening Minds Scale for Health Care Providers (OMS-HC), a 15-item validated scale that measures healthcare providers' attitudes and behavioural intentions towards people with a mental illness (Modgill et al., 2014).
The study evaluated the Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness (ISMI) scale, designed to measure the subjective experience of stigma, with subscales measuring Alienation, Stereotype Endorsement, Perceived Discrimination, Social Withdrawal and Stigma Resistance.
This study evaluated the perceived stigma experienced by children living with HIV attending the National Pediatric Hospital of Cambodia.
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