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Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae are all able to evade killing by penicillins, cephalosporins and carbapenems.
However, some host-adapted intracellular pathogens including Shigella flexneri, Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, have developed means to evade killing by autophagy.
Interestingly, HIV evolved a mechanism to partially evade killing by CTLs through down-regulation of MHC-I molecules in infected cells [27] [29].
Very few types of tumor cells evade killing by toxins that block protein synthesis.
Variation of these surface structures is necessary for meningococci to evade killing by host defence mechanisms.
A major therapeutic challenge for breast cancer is the ability of cancer cells to evade killing of conventional chemotherapeutic agents.
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For example, Salmonella typhimurium evades killing in activated macrophages by inhibition of IFN-γ-induced nitric oxide production.
Therefore, quiescence offers CSCs a further option for evading killing.
Another significant recent insight has been that the EMT-like switch in phenotype is associated with a concomitant change in the expression of multiple tumor antigens, ultimately allowing cells to evade T-cell killing.
In the context of impaired adaptive immune responses, the ability of Cryptococcus to evade macrophage killing leads to dissemination, disease, and ultimately death [ 5].
To be fully virulent, Listeria must evade macrophage killing, enter and replicate in epithelial cells and spread from cell to cell.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com