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Typically, in order to be deemed legally and ethically valid, an individual's consent must be properly informed and free of coercion (Faden & Beauchamp, 1986).
An ethically valid informed consent has four key components [ 17]: disclosure, understanding, voluntariness, and competence.
Deferred proxy consent (DPC) is an ethically valid surrogate for informed patient consent.
The ethically valid process of informed consent includes indeed five elements: voluntarism, capacity, disclosure, understanding, and decision [ 6].
DPC is an ethically valid and practically feasible way to include patients in emergency critical care trials.
Malawi like other developing countries has limited capacity to conduct complex biomedical and genetic tests required to answer scientific and ethically valid questions.
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The design and implementation of ethically and scientifically valid research in any country should be guided by a set of rules and regulations based on global ethical principles but domesticated within local laws, regulations and culture.
When a patient is transferred to an intensive care unit and subsequent ventilation and circulatory support procedures are initiated solely for the purpose of maintaining the adequate perfusion of organs until retrieval can be arranged, offering no benefit to the patient undergoing these procedures, can the family's consent be considered ethically and legally valid?
In the example of biobanks, the biobank's management (or similar) committee would act as final arbiters in determining if and when a structure, policy or protocol should be adopted as final, and whether its contents are scientifically, ethically and legally valid.
Third, EMA approaches can be used to assess outcomes in high-risk groups in an ethically sound and ecologically valid way.
Nathan Nahm wants to push me into the same territory when he says that if by "rational" I mean behavior "that maximizes what the actor intends to accomplish" in the way of policy changes, then my "analysis is certainly true but trivial". If, however, I mean that such "behavior should also be treated as ethically acceptable," then my "analysis is not valid".
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com