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30 31 These findings are in accordance with our estimates when controlling for confounding by a sibling controlled design.
Our findings of increased TpTe associated with AMP lagged 24 47 hr, decreased HRT associated with increased AMP lagged 72 95 hr, and increased fibrinogen associated with increased AMP lagged 24 47 hr, all appeared independent of other pollutants at the same lag times, because there were only small changes in the AMP effect estimates when controlling for either UFP or PM2.5.
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This owes partly to the application of purely statistical definitions of confounding (e.g., the criterion of "substantial magnitude change" of the effect estimate when controlling for a third variable), under which both causal mediation and selection bias will often meet the definition of a confounder (Hernan et al. 2002), blurring the distinctions among these distinct causal structures.
While this estimate is significant when controlling for per capita consumption expenditure model, it is no longer significant when controlling for the wealth index using 2SLS.
We also evaluated changes in OR estimates when additionally controlling for sex of the infant, prenatal care, payment source for prenatal care, whether the mother was born in the United States, maternal birthplace, and a previously developed socioeconomic status (SES) metric (Cheng et al. 2009; Yost et al. 2001).
We also evaluated changes in odds ratio estimates when additionally controlling for (Table 1): prenatal care, payment source for prenatal care, whether the mother was born in the U.S., mother's birthplace, and a previously-developed socioeconomic status (SES) metric [ 44, 45].
Parameter estimates changed by <10% when controlling for the Charlson index in multivariate models, so it was excluded from additional analyses.
Although occupation and income were also associated with impaired female fertility, the estimates were no longer significant when controlling for education.
Therefore, it may be useful to estimate associations of each indicator when controlling for other indicators.
Besides, inmates showed poorer executive functions also when controlling for estimated IQ compared with ADHD among psychiatric outpatients and controls.
Further, these ADHD prison inmates displayed poorer executive functions, also when controlling for estimated IQ, compared with ADHD psychiatric outpatients and healthy controls.
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