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Establishing cause and effect in these matters is never simple, and this presents a problem.
Establishing cause and effect in such an area is difficult and requires more scientific experimentation.
As in other cases involving exposure to environmental hazards, establishing cause and effect is likely to be difficult.
Isolating and controlling variables are important for determining patterns, establishing cause and effect relationships, and building mechanisms to explain or describe events and systems.
The difficulties of establishing cause and effect relationships between ECEC participation and longer term academic/cognitive attainment are well illustrated in 50 case studies drawn from the EPPSE study (a follow-on from the EPPE study) in the UK (Siraj-Blatchford et al. 2010).
The other limitation relates to establishing cause and effect.
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Neither regression nor correlation analyses can be interpreted as establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Recent perspectives focus on the two-way interplay between vegetation and hillslope geomorphology, where establishing cause-and-effect linkages is made difficult by confounding factors (spatial temporal scale, location, convergence, divergence, nonlinearity, thresholds, feedbacks).
But transgenerational measurements are very expensive and time consuming, particularly in the early stages of establishing cause-and-effect relationships to human or agricultural diseases.
Although randomized trials are critical for establishing cause-and-effect relationships between vitamin D supplementation and health outcomes, they will not address all the potential questions because of their fixed dose (or at most, a few doses) of vitamin D and narrow range of 25(OH D levels achieved by supplementation.
In the laboratory, one can have much better control when attempting to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
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