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Irschick, D. J. & Jayne, B. C. A field study of the effects of incline on the escape locomotion of a bipedal lizard.
The learning is expressed in the intracellularly recorded activity of identified motor neurons mediating three different defensive behaviors: escape locomotion, inking, and siphon withdrawal.
Aversive classical conditioning of Aplysia californica, a gastropod mollusk suited for neurobiological study, produces a learned reaction to the chemosensory conditioned stimulus that is expressed as a marked facilitation of four defensive responses: two graded reflexes (head and siphon withdrawal), an all-or-none fixed act (inking), and a complex fixed action pattern (escape locomotion).
Such experiments demonstrate that activation of specific neurons can elicit distinct movements, such as escape, locomotion, or courtship song (Lima and Miesenböck, 2005; von Philipsborn et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2013; Flood et al., 2013b; Inagaki et al., 2014; Bidaye et al., 2014; von Reyn et al., 2014).
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While the pedal cord innervates the body and foot and mediates locomotion and escape behaviors, the visceral cord innervates the pharyngeal walls, salivary glands, mantle, kidneys, gonads, gills, liver, heart and gut, among others [ 10].
For example, while uniform inhibition of spinal and cortical motor centres may typically be adaptive in response to acute hand pain, uniform motor inhibition may not always be appropriate in the lower limb, which is required for locomotion and escape behaviours.
The present study suggests that the negative effects of beach traffic may be indirect, preventing larvae from escaping from predators using wheel locomotion by disrupting the flat, hard surface necessary for efficient wheeling.
These findings indicate that the running bouts triggered by looming stimuli are not just a simple increase in locomotion but constitute directed escape responses.
High aerobic power output is essential for intense, sustained activities such as endurance locomotion, prey search, predator escape and foraging.
BCF crossbreds were more active (i.e., high bleats, locomotion and attempts to escape) than purebreds and F1.
For example, activation of specific neuronal types can elicit stereotyped movements such as feeding, locomotion, courtship song, or escape (Lima and Miesenböck, 2005; von Philipsborn et al., 2011; Flood et al., 2013b; Gao et al., 2013; Inagaki et al., 2014; Bidaye et al., 2014; von Reyn et al., 2014).
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