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This was followed by several phases of effusive and explosive eruptions, producing lava flows and primary volcaniclastic deposits emplaced along channels carved into the ice by heated meltwater.
Researchers led by climatologist Alan Robock of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey, ran scenarios that featured eruptions producing up to several times more sulfur dioxide than Toba.
Since 10 ka, six Vulcanian eruptions, producing pyroclastic units of 10−3 10−2 km3 DRE (Numanotaira tephra group), occurred at intervals of 500 2000 years, recording a decreasing eruption rate since the Dake eruption (Fig. 18).
In the last century, Etna has been considered a volcano dominated by persistent activity from the summit craters (i.e., degassing phases and moderate strombolian activity), alternating with effusive eruptions producing large volumes of lava.
However, closer examination of the fatalities record shows that there are some high VEI eruptions producing very destructive hazards that have caused very small numbers of fatalities, and vice versa; for these incidents, eruption magnitude (VEI) is not the dominant control on fatality counts, as previously noted by Blong (1988).
Subplinian eruptions producing about, such as those of 472 and 1631, have been more frequent with a few hundred years between them.
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Ash produced during low viscosity magmatic eruptions (e.g., Hawaiian and Strombolian basaltic eruptions) produce a range of different pyroclasts dependent on the eruptive process.
After the largest Dake eruption, sub-Plinian or Vulcanian eruptions produced pyroclastic units of 10−2 10−1 km3 DRE every 10,000 20,000 years.
However, many eruptions produce similar-looking shards or are multi-phased thus producing a variety of shard types.
Basaltic eruptions generated tablelands and scoria cones between the Late Miocene and Middle Pleistocene, and phreatomagmatic eruptions produced maars during Middle and Late Pleistocene time.
Stratigraphy also shows us that previous historical eruptions produced larger volume ash falls and broader-reaching pyroclastic flows.
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