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In general, studies to assess equivalence need larger sample size [ 17].
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The excitation and detection of an LLS involving a pair of equivalent spins is challenging because the magnetic equivalence needs to be lifted during both excitation and detection but preserved during storage.
In this context, reference to the LoC concept is implicitly made by stating that 'any significant differences or non-equivalences need to be followed up by an assessment of their biological or toxicological relevance, taking safety limits into account' [5].
For equivalence testing the state of non-equivalence needs to be put as a null hypothesis, thus assigning the restricted Error I probability α of the test to the event of falsely declaring equivalence (rejecting the null hypothesis of non-equivalence).
In such cases, for equivalence, we need to tolerate a larger threshold.
The requirements for the establishment of the equivalence classes need to be determined.
But in weak set theories lacking the axiom of extensionality the derivation of Excluded Middle from AC does not go through: some form of extensionality, or the existence of quotient sets for equivalence relations, needs to be assumed.
In order to achieve anything near human equivalence, robots will need, at the least, the capacity to perform ten trillion calculations per second.
The EU's draft text for a trade and sustainable development chapter also appears to draw an equivalence between the need to prevent trade distortions and the fight against climate change.
In the former case it has no bearing on the worth of the job to the company; in the latter the compensation should equal the differential cost incurred.The sophistry used by GSK and others extends to justifications such as market equivalence and the need to attract the best.
With regard to the proposed tests of equivalence, the authors need to firstly explain how they believe interactions should be incorporated conceptually and then demonstrate that this can actually be achieved in practice.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com