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One theory argued that the inner layers played the active role, pushing against the epidermis like air pumped into a balloon.
Likely we found in highly fertile queens of E. tuberculatum a well-developed epidermis like those that have been described in M. foetens (Hölldobler et al., 1994) and D. lucida [40] where a link with the queen signaling mechanism was suggested.
Like other important proteins of the protective layers of the epidermis (like most prominently, loricrin), also filaggrin is strongly down-regulated on our overlap list.
Clinical studies have focused on wounds of the epidermis like venous ulcers [ 18, 21, 25] or skin graft donor sites [ 20, 26], whereas molecular research has predominantly been performed on common bacteria of the skin [ 23, 27, 28] or keratinocytes [ 29, 30].
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Beneath epidermis, exodermis is the outer layer that protects old root when the epidermis collapses; the exodermis plays epidermis-like function and is sustained by the heavily lignified sclerenchyma layer.
Then, the epidermis-like structure (model for epidermis) was placed at the fixed tip of the chamber.
However, despite the viability and evident three-dimensional epidermis-like growth pattern, hMSC showed a persistent expression of mesenchymal but not of epithelial markers, thus indicating a lack of epidermal (trans) differentiation.
Under such conditions, various differentiated cells were found, including pulsatile cardiomyocyte cells, fibroblast-like cells (mesoderm), definitive endoderm-like cells (endoderm), neural rosettes and epidermis-like cells (ectoderm) (Figure 4C).
Without induction, however, ectoderm will differentiate into epidermis-like epithelium [ 35].
This finding is in good agreement with previous observations of epidermis-like cornification in MECs.
Upon culturing, normal urothelial cells acquire a considerable degree of plasticity, including the ability to differentiate into epidermis-like as well as urothelial-like structures [ 42].
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