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To deal with the potential high dimensional optimization problem (i.e. large transition matrices), an enhanced offspring generation procedure is proposed to help the ES algorithm converge efficiently and find better Pareto frontiers through generations.
Traditionally, these females were thought to benefit from increased survival, fecundity or enhanced offspring fitness [9].
The dams with higher average LG also showed higher day-to-day variability in LG (Fig. 3A), raising the possibility that high levels of post-stimulation maternal care may not always be associated with enhanced offspring function and that reliability may be more important than quantity of maternal care.
Benefits are typically expressed in additional eggs, sired offspring or enhanced offspring quality, which can all increase an individual's fitness.
This is presumably because of enhanced offspring production by immigrant females at the range margins that counteract the low juvenile survival there.
Maternal glucose levels specifically enhanced offspring adiposity at birth, and additional influences of maternal insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion were apparent.
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The enhanced survival of offspring sired by P males may have been due to genetic effects, maternal allocation, or both.
The genetic incompatibility hypothesis [ 12- 15] was originally proposed to account for benefits of polyandry in the form of enhanced viability of offspring (i.e., through processes occurring after fertilization).
The enhanced survival of offspring from P versus NP sires could have been due to differences in their ability to control pathogen burden ('pathogen clearance' or 'immune resistance') or their capacity to cope with or limit the damage caused by a given pathogen burden ('disease resistance' or 'tolerance') [ 38- 40], or both.
Arachidonic acid improved the wire hanging endurance (p=0.0003) and water maze latency (p=0.0021), suggesting enhanced neurodevelopment in all offspring.
Males with longer tail feathers are generally longer-lived and more disease resistant, females thus gaining an indirect fitness benefit from this form of selection, since longer tail feathers indicate a genetically stronger individual which will produce offspring with enhanced vitality.
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