However, one study directly comparing energetic costs across parasite species suggests that N. apis infection is not as energetically draining as N. ceranae infection [ 24].
For the plant, energetic costs are incurred in nectar production [40] [42], whilst floral temperature regulation can be energetically expensive in some cases [10], but may also be passive through reflecting environmental heat [reviewed by 14].
Given the energetic costs for amino acid biosynthesis (shown in Fig. 7b), these amino acids are the most energetically expensive ones.
Vigilance and foraging during the energetically-demanding reproductive phase are therefore not mutually exclusive, and mothers in our experiment were able to successfully protect their young against nest predators without suffering energetic costs.
Furthermore, roaring highlights the location of the males for intruding coalitions [15], [16], and is also energetically expensive, both in terms of the distances covered [8], and the energetic cost of roaring [17].
The energetic cost for the synthesis of this hormone is certainly much less costly energetically.
Although sperm are generally considered energetically inexpensive, especially compared to reproductive costs for females (e.g. Dewsbury, 1982; Hayward and Gillooly, 2011), the energetic cost of reproduction for males (number, size and mobility of sperm as well as associated fluid) is nonetheless significant (Dewsbury, 1982; Harris and Moore, 2005; Hayward and Gillooly, 2011).
The average value of kad from the above calculation (2.34 kcal/mol/nm2) was used to determine the energetic cost of membrane wrapping around NDs. Here, we consider only the initial stage of membrane wrapping and focus on the tip of a nanodiamond, where the curvature tends to be the largest (sharpest) and the deformation of membrane is energetically the most costly.
Starch is an energetically low-cost storage metabolite, which through respiration functions as an energy source when photosynthesis is impaired.
Although repeated forceful twitching can be energetically demanding, the costs associated with escape responses will be much higher [16], [39], [75].
