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The weakness in particular of export-oriented manufacturing has deprived South Africa from growth opportunities as well as from job creation at the relatively low end of the skill distribution.
At the high end of the skill spectrum, for instance, HCG Oncology has developed a new category of "onconurses" who are better trained than normal nurses to assist doctors in chemotherapy and radiation treatments.
So what is left is the jobs at each end of the skill and wage spectrum.
At one end of the skill spectrum is the 'abstract tasks' which require more human interaction such as creativity, collaboration, intuition, and persuasion.
In addition, Boeri and Garibaldi (2005) show for Italy that mainly workers at the lower end of the skill distribution engage in informal activities.
Our research however suggests that in terms of literacy, the complexity of content of vocational programs may be substantially lower, so they more strongly draw in participants from the lower end of the skill distribution at the completion of the previous level, especially in countries with highly occupationally specific vocational training.
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With video games themselves becoming increasingly normal, their upper end on the skill side of things will only grow.
Whether they are at the upper end of the skill-and-income spectrum or the more modest-paying jobs in retail, health care or personal services, there is a labor demand in the suburbs.
Especially at the lower end of the skills spectrum, workers often face a lack of respect by management, erratic schedules, and punishment for trying to form a union.
"There are long-term institutional factors including weak trade unions, low collective bargaining coverage, an economy that has large numbers of people at the bottom end of the skills range and a lack of vocational training".
Earlier waves of industrialisation have primarily affected low-skilled manual labour and past improvements in technology have typically made jobs at the lower end of the skills spectrum obsolete – for example, flight navigators but not pilots; typists but not data analysts.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com