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When transit and land development are integrated, there is less dependence on private motorization, which in turn has positive effects on equity, congestion, and the environment (Cervero 1998).
However, this expansion has had negative effects on equity because: 1. private insurance firms and providers practice risk selection (cream skimming), excluding or charging higher premiums to those who either suffer chronic diseases or are elderly, and as a consequence those enduring greater risk must pay higher copayments that they often cannot afford; 2.
Informal patient payments can have adverse effects on equity and can hinder the determination of future funding requirements of the health care sector [ 2, 6- 8].
The effect of other patient characteristics, such as age, gender, and socio-economical status, has been described previously (see P4P effects on equity).
Another two studies regarded measles vaccination as an intervention, and evaluated its effects on equity in under-five mortality rates [ 26, 31].
Without rationalization of the wholesale side of supply, informal payments will continue to play a major role in resource allocation, and negative effects on equity and access will continue [ 34].
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"Increased investment in money market funds tends to have a dampening effect on equity fund investment".
On the other hand, the study's authors warned, slowing the pace of buybacks "could have a negative effect on equity valuations".
Similarly, the gravity of weaker growth will most likely overcome the levitational effect on equity prices from more quantitative easing, particularly given that equity valuations today are not as depressed as they were in 2009 or 2010.
Increased competition had no substantial effect on equity, either during the period of NHS 'under-funding' under a Conservative government in the 1990s or during the NHS 'golden age' of accelerating expenditure growth under a Labour government in the 2000s.
4. Effect on equity: an answer to this research question will help to improve the conditions of marginalised groups in humanitarian settings.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com