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In order to understand fire effects on ecosystems one must view fire within the context of gradients in productivity and ignitions, which dictate different fire regimes.
According to USEPA guidelines, ecological risk assessment (ERA) is defined as a process that evaluates the likelihood of adverse ecological effects on ecosystems exposed to one or more stressors (US EPA 1998; Gao et al. 2013).
Often, ecosystems are affected by various threats simultaneously (multiple stress effect); whereas, environmental effects on ecosystems are usually studied for one stress factor at a time.
A sound understanding of fire and its effects on ecosystems is an essential prerequisite for effectively managing this widespread ecological process.
Continued changes in temperature will also have huge effects on ecosystems inland, too.
Changes in winter have big and surprising effects on ecosystems and their services.
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On one hand, taxonomic diversity or species composition may have significant effects on ecosystem processes but they should be driven by relationships with functional community structure [4].
Bushmeat has a bad name for a good reason: it threatens already endangered species, and strips forests of their keystone species, with untold effects on ecosystem biodiversity as a whole.
Carbon legacies can have important effects on ecosystem carbon fluxes, switching its behavior from carbon sinks to sources [13, 19].
Species at higher trophic levels had more significant and variable or less predictable effects on ecosystem functioning, and the species within functional groups have very different effects on ecosystem functioning, indicating a lack of redundancy within functional groups.
Urbanization effects on ecosystem functions are both important and complex, characterized by scale multiplicity, spatial heterogeneity, and intensive human disturbances.
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