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"I think if you're not holding individuals accountable, you're not going to get the full effects of deterrence," he said.
The individual mosquito version of the model can thus capture both of these effects of deterrence at a level closer to reality.
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Monitors struggle to distinguish the effect of deterrence from the rise of easy, cheap alternatives to piratical downloading, such as legal online music services.
"There is one key question that no one can answer: How much disruption does it take to give you the effect of deterrence?" said Michael Levi, a fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations and the author of a new book, "On Nuclear Terrorism".
"Overwhelmingly, the evidence is that the effect of deterrence comes from holding individuals responsible," Black says.
Box 1 Criminalisation of clients: limited effect on deterrence of sex work Sex worker voices: While they're going around chasing johns away from pulling up beside you, I have to stay out for longer Whereas if we weren't harassed we would be able to be more choosy as to where we get in, who we get in with you know what I mean?
"The intensive policing of individuals to 'deter' them from sexual behaviour (which is not in and of itself either violent or illegal where two consenting adults have made an agreement) would surely outweigh the effects of any deterrence".
It became crystal clear to me that the risk of unequal application is high and its effect on deterrence is low," she said in a statement to The Times.
In South Asia, nuclearization did not produce the cautionary effects that the theorists of deterrence expected.
The chapter also discusses the findings of cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of deterrence, the brutalization effect of the death penalty, and much more.
The main effects of the escalation of U.S. deterrence policies were to increase the rates that human smugglers charged, as well as increase the net number of irregular migrants staying in the United States permanently rather than migrating seasonally.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com