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This is analogous to obtaining an unbiased estimate of the effect of intent-to-treat by comparing outcomes among all subjects in each arm of a randomized trial subject to noncompliance.
The court is considering whether the law bans only intentional bias or also prohibits policies that have a discriminatory effect regardless of intent – such as focusing Section 8 homes in one part of a city ostensibly for practical, rather than racial, reasons.
The idea was to make users think about what they were doing and make sure they didn't do stuff that would be harmful, but there were so many that users just ignored them and they became background noise — you either turned off UAC or just clicked yes to everything so it actually had the opposite effect of the intent.
It presents a "grammar of purpose, a grammar of effect, a grammar of intent," Clark explains.
For his audio-visual installation Heads May Roll (2014), for instance, Drew examined the "effect and intent of mediated images, synthesized voice and the fractured narrative of instructional speech".
And the replacement of intent with effect as the standard for determining discrimination — effect is the standard that affirmative-action programs use — contributed to a white backlash.
We all have to understand that effects can operate independent of intent, that subconscious biases can move counter to conscious egalitarianism, and that malice need not be present within the individual to fuel the maliciousness of the society at large.
Regardless of intent, the effect was stifling.
For the primary data analysis to determine the effect of the intervention, an intent to treat (ITT) approach will be used, with both community and individual as the unit of analysis.
To assess the effect of the intervention on intent for adopting CHD risk reduction strategies, we again made between group comparisons post-clinic visit using Rao-Scott chi-square tests and, subsequently, mixed effects logistic regression models to adjust for the baseline differences in education and the natural effect of clustering of patients within providers.
Judges are required to interpret statutes in a manner that gives "effect to the intent and will of Parliament".
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com