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While genome wide association studies are appropriately powered to detect common variants of modest effect, linkage studies are more effective in detecting rare variants of larger effect even in the presence of allelic heterogeneity.
That said, it remains possible that whip use in the final stages of a race really does improve relative performance at a stage when all horses are slowing, but more frequent and sensitive methods of measuring velocity may be required to detect such a cause and effect linkage.
First, the association could reflect a cause and effect linkage.
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For example, Luoma et al. (2001) provide eight case studies that specify cause and effect linkages using community analyses of macroinvertebrates to decipher the effects of multiple stressors.
(Phase 4 FGD) The implementation team (including facilitators) sought to make cause and effect linkages for health problems apparent through stories and problem-solving games.
This enabled women and the wider community to discuss cause and effect linkages, but also some of the more distal causes of health problems.
This is important since one of the theoretical premises of the intervention is that behaviour change will occur if communities are able to analyse the cause and effect linkages of health problems, and then define ways in which they can influence these linkages.
The analysis adjusts for confounding factors including founder effects, linkage disequilibrium of host HLA types, co-variation in HIV codons and corrections for multiple statistical tests.
Lastly, we considered the conclusions for each cause-effect linkage collectively, in order to answer the primary question.
Genotypes were phased with hsphase; to estimate SNP haplotype effects, linkage disequilibrium blocks were identified in the detected QTL region.
Recent perspectives focus on the two-way interplay between vegetation and hillslope geomorphology, where establishing cause-and-effect linkages is made difficult by confounding factors (spatial temporal scale, location, convergence, divergence, nonlinearity, thresholds, feedbacks).
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