For example, if the constructs used to represent the cause and effect are problematic in terms of their definitions and measurements, this will have consequences for all other aspects of validity and will seriously affect the validity of the causal claims.
Furthermore, identifying directionality of effect was problematic in the majority of research reviewed.
If we utilize the example of the effect of schooling on subsequent earnings, the estimate of causal effects is problematic because other factors might affect (or at least are correlated with) both schooling (X) and earnings (Y), which makes an unbiased estimate of the relationship between X and Y impossible (Fig. 1a).
The third Anaheim player felled by the disease, Stoner said recovering from the effects is problematic.
To obtain hard evidence of any possible preference effects is problematic, as it is difficult to reliably distinguish between simple therapeutic effects and preference effects mediated through psychological pathways in experiments (McPherson and Chalmers 1998).
Carrying out an epidemiologic study linking water pollution from UNGDO to health effects is problematic because the contaminants are not fully known and because of the variability of drinking water sources, preexisting water quality, chemicals used, temporal relationships, and underlying hydrology.
However, although glucocorticoids are often quite effective, their adverse effects are problematic and include weight gain, osteoporosis, immunosuppression, altered glycemic control, glaucoma, fractures, muscle wasting, and hypertension (Table 1), which are counter-balanced by using the lowest possible dose for the shortest period of time.
Tests of fixed effects are problematic in mixed-effects models because the distribution of the fixed effects is uncertain under the null hypothesis.
It's not clear whether all cases of top-down effects are problematic for perceptual justification.
