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One effect is certain: Homeland Security spending has been a pump-primer for local governments starved by the recession, and has dramatically improved emergency response networks across the country.
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In this particular case, Hoeft and her colleagues can't yet separate cause and effect: Were certain children predisposed to develop strong white-matter pathways that then helped them to learn to read, or was superior instruction and a rich environment prompting the building of those pathways?
The officials' decisions could be debated, but their effect was certain and, for the Bears, brutal.
Furthermore, there is not enough information regarding human dose studies to elicit a threshold concentration, beyond which health effects are certain to occur.
Do we dare ponder the effects this rhetoric is certain to have on disgruntled members of their loyal congregations who otherwise have little knowledge of Islam and little interaction with Muslims?
One sector where this effect is almost certain to show up is steel.
Post-operative azithromycin may be associated with reduced risk of post-operative trichiasis; however, this effect is less certain under programmatic conditions than under high-quality surgery by a few highly-skilled integrated eye care workers.
In addition, there are not enough studies on the effect of non-pharmacological interventions on inflammatory biomarkers in healthy individuals, and we are unable to compare these effects and be certain that the effects reported here are related to FM.
The most frequently cited reason to blow up Trump's nomination was the presumably deleterious effect he was certain to have down-ticket.
But whether the tax ever goes into effect is far from certain.
The deterrent effect is even less certain, since many criminals act on impulse, often under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com