As we know, impulsive differential equations are more appropriate for characterizing ecological evolutionary process (for example, seasonal births of some wild animals).
To date, these methods have been applied to marine and freshwater regions around the world to assess spatial patterns of cumulative impact2,5,6,7,8,9, and to explore how cumulative impacts affect or relate to other ecological processes or conservation needs (for example, refs 10, 11).
These potential sources of bias may be accounted for by the joint modelling of the ecological and observation processes through, for example, hidden process models [ 13].
Neutral landscapes can be used in models of ecological processes to allow for the assessment of the contribution of habitat matrix structure on the outcome of the ecological process being modelled.
ICRAF suggests that in the process of intensifying land use, trees can have both an ecological role (for example, in fertility maintenance and erosion control) and an economic role (for example, in increasing income through sale of tree products).
Genetic evolution may occur on a comparable time-scale to that of ecological change, for example.
Our mapping of ecological systems, for example, identified ~90 ecological systems; the same area is covered by parts of 12 ecoregions (sensu [ 82]).
This difference in learning may be an adaptation to species-specific differences in ecological factors, for example, host preference.
At least 37 reserves have reintroduced lions (Panthera leo) primarily for ecotourism, but also for ecological processes [3] [5].
