This pattern that may be characterized as an ecological dose-response was specifically pronounced for respiratory hospital admissions.
These designs use comparisons of inputs, processes, outputs, outcomes, and impact in intervention areas with those in (non-randomized) non-intervention areas, and ecological dose-response analyses that take into account possible confounding, as well as mediating factors and effect modifiers, to assess project results.
The study is limited to the extent that it is a population-based (ecological) study, where doses (of temperatures, smoking habits, and stressors related to land elevation) are unknown for individuals.
Therefore, under the vitamin D hypothesis, it is possible that the exclusion of these countries may have weakened an ecological association between UVB dose and colorectal cancer incidence.
The independent variables used in this ecological study were solar UVB doses and latitude.
On the contrary, numerous studies (experimental, epidemiological, and ecological) have shown that low doses of ionizing radiation are beneficial to health (Feinendegen et al. 2004; Jaworowski 2008; Tubiana et al. 2009).
Note, however, that CEA differs from most LCAs in including environmental fate, exposure-dose, and human health, ecological, and other impacts as equal, integral components of the basic CEA framework (as depicted in Figure 1).
Thus, for transgenic biofeedstock crops a more holistic effects characterization considers the harm arising from direct effects (dose-response) as well as broader ecological metrics (an example being indirect effects on herbivory for the case of Bt crops [ 31]).
Combined exposures: The measurement of the doses that reach an individual or an ecological receptor at the same time or over a period of time sufficiently short that the effects of one chemical add to the effect of another.
