They have been hypothesized to act as receptor-like kinases (RLKs), where the extracellular TLP could sense pathogens and the cytoplasmic kinase could relay downstream signaling [ 23].
The design of novel CRC therapies is contingent on a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the ability of deregulated RTKs to relay downstream signaling pathways that convey oncogenic properties in normal IECs.
Other work has also demonstrated that activation and clustering of the αMβ2 integrin in U937 cells and peripheral blood monocytes induced a translocation of PKCδ to the plasma membrane, whereby PKCδ is phosphorylated and thereby activated via the src family kinases Hck and Lyn to relay downstream signals involving the transcription factor Foxp1 [ 21].
In a GTP-coupled protein receptor (GPCR) signaling network, calcium and cAMP are considered to be the nodes in the core of a bow tie network in which a variety of signals from the GPCR converge and are relayed downstream of the network.
However, it has been hypothesized that these serve a downstream 'command' role, relaying information from integration/higher-processing centers to motor centers in the VNC [ 26,53 ].
Although recent studies have uncovered some of the upstream events activating this gene, the mechanisms through which this signal is relayed downstream leading to the eventual induction of antibiotic pathways remain unclear.
MAPK cascades, as a major plant transduction components, regulate numerous processes relaying downstream of receptors or sensors and transduce environmental and developmental signals into adaptive and programmed responses [ 26, 27].
These experiments suggest a double role of ETR1 during ethylene-induced stomatal closure: one of perception of the ethylene signal (upstream of ROS), and one of signal-relay (downstream of ROS).
A sink node includes Pid of destination node d in the header of a downstream data packet, and relay nodes forward the data to node n1 that fulfills the following condition: n 1 = arg min k ∈ Z ( n ) Dist p ( k, d ).
Clearly, to gain a more meaningful mechanistic understanding of progesterone's paracrine mode of action in the mammary gland, identification of the downstream genetic networks that relay the progesterone signal will be essential.
In the cytoplasm, adaptor proteins from the arrestin clan play key roles in the signal relay, acting downstream of transmembrane spanning proteins at the plasma membrane or/and along the endocytic pathway.
