This corresponds to "Varies, but differences do not affect individuals".
The survey listed 16 morphological, behavioral, and genetic traits that could potentially vary in lions, and students were asked to indicate whether each of the traits: cannot vary, could vary but does not, varies but differences do not affect individuals, or varies and differences affect individuals.
McMahon, C. R., Field, L. C., Bradshaw, C. J. A., White, G. C. & Hindell, M. A. Tracking and data-logging devices attached to elephant seals do not affect individual mass gain or survival.
How useful this would be relative to further refining alternate input data would depend upon the perceived value of the different outputs: for example, inter-event times inform cumulative estimates and durations of ash hazard over the total eruption but do not affect individual plume height hazard maps.
Using state taxes collected to pay for projects that don't affect individuals within their community is a real problem.
The attack does not affect individual customers, instead simply instructing the machine to dispense notes, with no link to bank accounts.
Although infection load at any stage did not affect individual hazard risk (Cox proportional hazard test, Table 1), non-survivors had on average higher zoospore loads (9701 GE±21726.2) than survivors (28.2 GE±113.2; Figure 4) at death or at the end of the experiment, respectively.
Optimistic bias can mean that being made aware of population-level health risks does not affect individual behaviour [ 49, 50].
15 16 In Denmark, public hospitals are also paid per service provided but the financial incentive for the individual surgeon is likely low as this does not affect individual surgeon salary.
In agreement with our results, De Benedictis et al., [ 20] showed that SOD2 variant does not affect individual life expectancy in Italian population (sample size: 109, age criterion > 100 years old).
Specifically we compare two scenarios: (1) a "no selection" scenario in which cooperation does not affect individual fitness, which prevents any effect of evolutionary dynamics on demographic dynamics and (2) a "selection" scenario in which cooperation affects individual fitness, which potentially allows evolutionary dynamics to affect demographic dynamics.
