Its chairman, Bevan Powell, added: "Institutional racism is not about labelling individuals racists but rather police practice and procedures that bring about disproportionate outcomes for black and minority ethnic communities and police personnel".
The fact is that now, less than six months since it was introduced, manifestly unjust and disproportionate outcomes are being observed; magistrates are resigning; and judges are expressing concerns.
But the requirement of a linkage shows that how the disproportionate outcomes are brought about is essential to the existence of structural discrimination.
Because our concern is with the moralized concept of discrimination, one might think that disproportionate outcomes, by themselves, entail that an injustice has been done to the members of the salient group in question and that structural discrimination thereby exists against the group.
These sentiments also manifest in the disproportionate outcomes of stop-and-search practices.
The work of a black police officer inside a justice system that has been proven to produce racially disproportionate outcomes can be even more taxing, he said.
"Regardless of cause," the researchers conclude, "we have found that police officers' interactions with blacks tend to be more fraught, not only in terms of disproportionate outcomes (as previous work has shown) but also interpersonally, even when no arrest is made and no use of force occurs".
Similarly, Schultz et al. (91) found that CBPR interventions with differing levels of engagement between ethnic subgroups resulted in disproportionate outcomes between ethnic groups due to lack of appropriate programme tailoring.
The specific judge and even the specific timing of a trial can have a disproportionate effect on the outcome of a trial.
