It means that, phylogenetically and ontogenetically, the pigmented sepals, petals and dispersal structures of angiosperms are essentially heterochronic senescing leaves [ 110].
In addition, previous studies have reported that fungi that invest in dispersal structures (i.e. spores) instead of vegetative structures (i.e. hyphae) tend to colonize more litter patches and are more prevalent within the ecosystem [ 25].
Under such circumstances, seeds and other types of dispersal structures, such as fragments and culms of herbaceous plants, may be transported to places well distant from their site of origin.
For instance, in plants, all seeds disperse to some degree, but selection on traits like seed weight, plant height or specific dispersal structures (from fruits to wings; see Bonte et al. 2012) will eventually determine how long seeds can remain airborne, and as such how far they can be potentially spread (Cousens et al. 2008).
The modern distribution of living organisms has been shaped by multiple processes that had profound effects on the dispersal, genetic structure and evolutionary histories of plant and animal populations.
By comparing the seedbanks on islands with and without seed dispersers, we demonstrate a role of seed dispersal in structuring forest seedbanks.
Furthermore, to evaluate the historical role of dispersal in structuring T. paleacea populations we compare modern-day morphological and mitochondrial geographic patterns.
The evolutionary acquisition of fruits by angiosperms offered the opportunity to have one more dispersal-related structure (the fruit) subject to modification and natural selection (Vargas 2014).
As the range of R. balthica is limited by the Alps, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean, we considered populations bordering these dispersal impeding structures in a categorical predictor (bar).
Understanding the role of vertebrate-mediated seed dispersal in structuring forest communities is increasingly important because vertebrate populations continue to decline from forests around the world (e.g. Savidge 1987; Terborgh et al. 2008).
