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GAPDH showed similar mRNA levels in the samples from controls to those in the bipolar disorder samples (P = 0.12).
To check for potential difference in RNA degradation between control and bipolar disorder samples, the level of the house-keeping transcript GAPDH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) was analyzed with qPCR (data in the results section).
In addition, very high rates of concomitant ADHD and OCD are regularly identified in tic disorder samples.
The Concern over Mistakes cut-off score was derived by averaging the mean Concern over Mistakes scores from six studies that investigated perfectionism in other anxiety disorder samples as cited in a recent review [ 1].
In this study, we used MeDIP-Seq to investigate the whole-genome distribution of aberrant DNA methylation in six schizophrenia samples and three bipolar disorder samples and compared these with the methylation patterns of a normal sample.
Nevertheless, several studies found no differences in rates of retardation between major depressive disorder and type 2 bipolar disorder samples, but rather significantly higher rates of agitation among the group with type 2 bipolar disorder [ 133, 134].
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There are a number of strengths of this study including the use of a well-characterised bipolar disorder sample and screened controls that completed validated instruments.
Given the relatively small bipolar disorder sample size and uneven distribution of some variables, we estimated the variance in the regression models with non-parametric bootstrap with replacement (1000 replications) to obtain empirical standard error estimates without making distributional assumptions.
With regard to bipolar disorder, sample size was small in several studies from clinical settings (Nemeroff et al. 1985; Haggerty et al. 1990; Bartalena et al. 1990; Degner et al. 2015), whereas community studies are not the proper instrument for bipolar disorder.
Fig. 1 Scatter plots of the serum concentrations (x-axis) of valproate (µmol/L) (a, b) and lithium (mmol/L) (c) and neuropsychological test scores (y-axis) of digit span test backwards (a, c), and California verbal learning test (CVLT) short delay free recall (b) in the bipolar disorder sample.
Interestingly, no schizophrenia GWAS has implicated this region, but a GWAS in a combined bipolar and major depressive disorder sample implicated a SNP within the non-overlapping portion of this GSMA bin (6q25.2, rs17082664-G in SYNE1) [20].
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