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Knockdown resistance mutation may also provide complete resistance to doses of field spray but not to WHO discriminating concentrations.
Two to three days old, non blood-fed female mosquitoes were selected and exposed to insecticide impregnated papers with discriminating concentrations of DDT (4%), permethrin (0.75%), deltamethrin (0.05%), malathion (5%) and propoxur (0.1%) using WHO standard assays [33].
funestus mosquitoes collected from 2004 to 2006 using the standard WHO susceptibility test kit with discriminating concentrations of permethrin 0.75%, deltamethrin 0.05%, and DDT 4%. 17 The impregnated and control papers were supplied by the Universiti Sains Malaysia and were not used more than five times.
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We chose the threshold discriminating concentration of 21.6 ng∙ml-1 IVM aglycone because no development of the susceptible isolates occurred at this concentration [ 15, 16].
Analysing data using a threshold discriminating concentration of 0.1 µg/ml for thiabendazole and 21.6 ng/ml for IVM-Ag is faster, simpler and inexpensive [ 26, 28].
For IVM resistance, a threshold discriminating concentration of 21.6 ng/ml was chosen and the results were interpreted according to the method described by Dolinska et al. [ 26, 28].
The analysis presented here shows that it can discriminate concentrations of nanoparticles down to the sub-nanomolar level.
The low mortalities (0.5 2.3%) of An. arabiensis after exposure to the discriminating concentration of DDT suggest a high level of insecticide resistance resulting probably of prolonged and extensive use of DDT for IRS by the NMCP in Ethiopia.
Bioassay non-survivors to DDT and pyrethroids were found with homozygous resistant alleles (L1014F/L1014F) which suggest that besides the L1014F kdr mutation other mutations in the para-type sodium channel gene might be needed for mosquitoes to survive an exposure to a discriminating concentration of an insecticide [53].
The NO3− and the δ15N- and δ18O-NO3− variables demonstrated limitation in developing a decision tree model as multiple N sources and fractionation processes both resulted in difficulties of discriminating NO3− concentrations and isotopic values.
Pilot dose response studies established 1% (v/v) as a maximally discriminating odorant concentration (Fig. S1), which provides overall good signal-to-noise resolution while remaining below the maximum aversive response of RI = 1.
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