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As further genotyping and statistical genetic analysis of these 5 equally associated SNPs in an expanded sample would not help discern causality among these linked SNPs, we resorted to comparative genomics for the identification of conserved regulatory regions overlapping/neighbouring these loci as this would point at the functional SNP.
Regarding DU and birth defects, the ability to assess the strength, specificity and consistency of the association, and thus the overall ability to discern causality, are impacted by the absence of i) research that documents exposure on the intra-individual level and ii) research that purposefully attempts to distinguish the role of DU from co-occurring exposures.
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Next, the cross-sectional nature and design of the study prevent discerning causality.
The first step to disentangling the direction of causality is to discern whether a relationship with other vegetation exists at all.
No single axis of causality can be discerned to segregate the biological from geomorphological systems in soils.
Because we are unable to control for student effort (a measure notoriously hard to capture), we are unable to discern whether study effort confounds our finding and makes causality vague.
Although we observed in longitudinal analysis that changes in CRP were associated with changes in lung function and vice versa, it is not possible to discern the most plausible direction of associations or to infer causality from an observational study.
Our longitudinal investigation highlights the need to assess the continuities of cognitive status that were not discerned from cross-sectional studies, which are also subject to biases related to reverse causality (21, 22, 37).
The causality seems obvious.
Causality kept escaping her.
Simultaneity does not imply causality.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com