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Comparative assessment of the different fluid modalities is hampered by a paucity of direct trials.
(C ) Examples of direct trials (left), inference of order 1 trials (middle) and inference of order 2 trials (right).
Although the model parameters appear to favor bypass surgery, there have not been direct trials of the two types of surgeries.
Direct trials were used during the learning, test, and retest sessions, while inference 1 and 2 trials were only used during the test and retest sessions.
Because the natural history and pre-cancer stages of oropharyngeal cancers are not established as they are for cervical cancer, direct trials with oropharyngeal neoplasia as the endpoint are not feasible.
Importantly, there was no difference between reaction times for inference trials and direct trials (Table 1), supporting the idea that the consolidation of associative memory involved the integration of discrete events (i.e., generalization of memories) rather than sequential inferential reasoning (Shohamy and Wagner, 2008).
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The first is direct trial-and-error behavior, which encompasses the development of pain and pleasure.
We investigated the impact of the number of direct comparison trials on various statistical properties of an indirect comparison while allowing the sample size of each direct trial to follow a uniform distribution from 20 to 500.
The current data suggest that two types of processing that can contribute to performance on frequency discrimination tasks – direct trial by trial stimulus comparison and using or maintaining reference related information from previous trials, are immature among preschool children.
No direct trial evidence comparing oral drugs with infusional 5-FU regimens was identified.
We were able to combine all the available evidence on tocolytic treatments in a single pooled analysis, even if none had been compared in a direct trial.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com