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After the Han period, the employment of 當 dāng changes, and in the Buddhist literature, 當 dāng tends to express more direct obligations, i.e. performatives.
The source of legitimacy for the imposition of direct obligations on non-state actors at the international level without their participation therefore raises some questions.
States have shown a reluctance to impose direct obligations on non-state actors under both spheres of law, resulting in the (deliberate) gaps in the obligations of state vs. non-state actors.
Asset-backed commerical paper is a distant cousin of mortgage-backed securities, with both deriving their debt service from third-party borrowers repaying their loans rather than direct obligations of the issuer.
In a separate action designed to kick-start the housing market, the Fed also announced Tuesday that it is beginning a new program to buy $100 billion in direct obligations of government-controlled mortgage buyers Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and the Federal Home Loan Banks.
Relationships formed with grandchildren can generate direct obligations to the grandchildren themselves rather than their parents.
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The deal imposed no direct obligation on the Nato-led peacekeepers to arrest war criminals.
Ford Money Market Account is a direct obligation of Ford Motor Credit Co., a wholly owned subsidiary of Ford Motor Co". Double-talk.
In example 22a with a non-overt causative/agentive addressee subject, 必 bì has a deontic reading, conveying a direct obligation to the addressee.
Generic readings can appear as a subclass of deontic readings (Leiss 2008: 23).42 In the examples in 13, the subject is agentive and accordingly [+HUMAN]; in 13b, the speaker puts a direct obligation on the addressee subject.
Yet I wonder, especially when it comes to serious writing, whether this competition also brings something less dispiriting into play: a direct obligation towards your audience that was too often lacking in pre-digital times.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com