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It's impossible to prove direct causation for any one suicide.
Fourth, this study is based on a cross-sectional observational design and direct causation for the observed associations cannot be verified except through future longitudinal studies.
Third, the siRNA knock-down is not ideal experiment for proving direct causation for identified binding relations, because it could cause some false positives in our gold-standards.
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"Looking for direct causation is going to be impossible," he said.
For Wilson, the legal notions of direct causation are flawed when applied to cases of incitement, where speech is one factor among many and theories of multiple and indirect causation are more appropriate.
"The associations between screen time and health risk cited … do not prove direct causation," he writes.
She has eschewed the fiction of direct causation – that your low wages are the result of a cheaper foreigner – in favour of indirect causation: your wages are ratcheted down by your limited opportunities.
Nor is the public sophisticated in its understanding of the difference between correlation and causation, between direct causation and systemic causation, or even the basic statistical principle of regression towards the mean.
Like any committed determinist, Honderich is reluctant to ascribe any direct causation between the liberation of retirement and his upping the ante of philosophical debate.
Others (like the Gliere, the Hartmann symphonies and the Strauss) begin popping up elsewhere, though direct causation is hard to establish.
All causation is direct causation.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com