Specifically for CHDs, epigenetic factors may contribute to cardiomyocyte differentiation and chamber morphogenesis [50], and it has been proposed that epigenetic mechanisms are necessary to coordinate genetic programs in heart development [51].
Although extensive studies have been pursued to identity cell surface molecules on ESCs (Nunomura et al. 2005; Intoh et al. 2009) and to uncover the molecular mechanisms underlying the maintenance of the undifferentiated state and regulation of the differentiation process (Chambers & Tomlinson 2009; Young 2011), ESC-specific cell surface proteins, or markers, are not fully understood.
In addition, hadp1 zebrafish morphants exhibit contractility defects and aberrant differentiation of the chamber and non-chamber myocardium.
The expression pattern of sik1 gene suggests a role during the earliest stages of myocardial cell differentiation and/or primitive chamber formation [10].
Identification of proteins involved in specific cardiac developmental events using whole embryonic hearts is difficult because it requires distinguishing and deconvoluting candidate proteins expressed concurrently during endocardial cushion morphogenesis, cardiomyocyte differentiation, looping and/or chamber specification.
In 2013, studies in mice showed that TBX20 mutations resulted in failure of heart looping, developmental arrest, and lack of chamber differentiation [ 15].
Immunocytochemical analysis was performed on proliferating myoblasts and myotubes after 6 days of differentiation, grown on chamber slides using LSAB kit (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark) according to manufacturer's instructions.
Thus, the specification and differentiation of non-chamber myocardium is not altered in the presence of ectopic Tbx3 or Tbx2 in the heart tube.
Immunostaining using human nucleus specific antibody and cardiac markers revealed several fates for ASC in the chamber; (1) differentiation into cardiomyocytes and integration with co-implanted rCM; (2) differentiation into smooth muscle cells and recruitment into vascular structures; (3) adipogenic differentiation.
