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Interestingly, the one study that examined gender differences in the prospective associations between ODD and CD showed that ODD appears to be a developmental precursor to CD only among boys [ 11].
Using a DMM framework we identified two subject groups with distinct microbiota profiles (FM1 and FM2) that exhibited statistically significant differences in the prospective risk of P. falciparum infection after accounting for age and other potential confounders.
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Patient characteristics were well balanced between the two arms with the exception of grade, a difference also observed in the prospective clinical trial (Fountzilas et al, 2005).
Statistically significant differences between the prospective and retrospective cohorts likely represent alterations in the standard of care over time.
The study concluded that these were probably the result of differences in the data survey procedures (prospective or retrospective for example).
However, there were no significant differences in the group characteristics when comparing the prospective US sites and the entire US cohort.
Given the differences in prospective hospital-ED use for those with and without prior utilization one could also create a summary interRAI Hospital-ED Risk Count Index where categories 0 to 6 represent persons with no prior use and categories 7 thru 12 represent persons with prior use.
Because a number of studies have shown that higher ongoing task demands reduce prospective memory performance, making the ongoing task easier for older adults artificially reduces the size of age differences in prospective memory performance and makes it impossible to disentangle effects of aging from effects of giving older adults easier ongoing task.
The aforementioned prospective study found differences in the prevalence of painful physical symptoms across the countries included in the study using a common definition, which was a threshold of greater than or equal to 2 points on the Somatic Symptoms Inventory pain scale [ 31].
Since intelligence is positively correlated with prospective memory performance [12], [56], [60], as well as with many other cognitive tasks, this confound artificially reduces the size of age differences in prospective memory performance.
This bias may partly explain the difference in the findings between prospective studies and retrospective case control studies.
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